Thirteen Reasons Why

Jay Asher grew up in California, and has always had a thing for books. Growing up, he worked in several different book stores and libraries. He attended Cuesta college right after he graduated high school, majoring in elementary education. He then transferred to California Polytechnic State University where he left in his senior year. He decided he wanted to pursue a career as a serious writer. Thirteen Reasons Why is Jay’s first novel, and it has won several awards. Jay is 34 years old, and has been married for eight years. Asher used a way of telling this story that was easily interpretable for many teens. The style was a two-part narration between two characters, throughout the chapters as opposed to alternating every other chapter. By doing this, it really made you want to keep reading. The reason I chose this particular book was because it was recommended by my very close friend. We share many interests, so she knew I’d enjoy this novel just as much as she did. The short summary on the inside cover had a way of drawing you in, and I could not wait to start reading. I felt that it deals with a very serious and dangerous issue; it was incredibly compelling. The author uses an interesting way to make this story contemporary, and stay contemporary. He used already â€Å"outdated† elements in a contemporary setting to make this a virtually ageless book. Cassette tapes were a major item in this novel, and Asher had the characters acknowledge that they were outdated. He did this with other items and ideas as well, such as the kinds of cars people drove. The setting of the story took place in a small town, which the author chooses to leave unnamed. Throughout the story the main character visits various houses, stores, and other buildings that had certain significance. There are many very important characters in this book. The two main characters however, are two high school juniors; Clay Jensen and Hannah Baker. Hannah Baker makes seven cassette tapes, with 13 different stories on them. The stories tell the reasons, incidents, and people that ultimately caused her suicide. Hannah retells stories about each person on the tapes; she tells them in such a way that you can really relate, and understand where she’s coming from. Clay Jensen, the other main character, is on these tapes. As the reader, you go through the tapes with Clay. You see his reactions to Hannah’s words first hand. Just as with Hannah, Clay’s reactions are very understandable and relatable. The author made it very easy to feel both character’s pain. â€Å"You don’t know what goes on in anyone’s life but your own. And when you mess with one part of a person’s life, you’re not messing with just that part. Unfortunately, you can’t be that precise and selective. When you mess with one part of a person’s life, you’re messing with their entire life. Everything . . . affects everything.† The overall theme of this novel is to think about how what you say or do can affect others. In Hannah’s case, everything affected her. You can never really know how what you do affects someone; everyone is different. One main message that Jay Asher wants people to get from this book is to think about your actions, before you act. Think about how what you do might be adding to someone’s pain, because you don’t know if they are already hurting. Asher’s style was a very captivating one. He had a way of writing this novel that would really grab the reader’s attention. Just his wordings, really made you think. Also, his ability to make the characters situations and emotions relatable made the book a real page-turner. From the second you pick up Thirteen Reasons Why, you are hooked. Jay Asher is an absolutely phenomenal young adult author. Another book that compares with this one is the novel by Stephen Chbosky, The Perks of Being a Wallflower. These two books are similar in the sense that they are easily relatable. Both novels deal with very serious, real life issues. Both novels tell it like is. No issue is too serious to be discussed with these authors, because it’s all real, which is why teenagers are attracted to them. The characters seem so real, that you actually feel their pain, and everything they go through. They are portrayed as if they have been your friend for years. Thirteen reasons why, the novel by Jay Asher has won several awards. Each award is rightly his. This book was incredibly inspirational, with so many memorable quotes. I would definitely recommend this novel, and I already have. Anyone who is interested in a good book, this is for them. Regardless of age or gender, the messages this book has will come through. How would you react if you found out you were a contributing factor in the suicide of your classmate? Jay Asher really goes in depth, and you will not be able to put this book down.

Healthy fear Essay

Fear is a feeling; it is a reaction to something we are frightened of, a natural instinct when faced with something we feel may endanger us. However, fear can be healthy and/or unhealthy; for instance, being afraid of spiders is slightly unhealthy as they can not actually do any harm but if a person is afraid of developing cancer and as a result of this they stop smoking, this is a healthy fear. In biological terms, when any fear is experienced, certain areas of the brain such as the amygdala and the hypothalamus are activated which control the initial, physical response to fear. Chemicals such as adrenaline and the stress hormone cortisol are then released into the blood stream causing certain physical reactions such as; a rapid heart rate, increased blood pressure, tightening of muscles, sharpened or redirected senses, dilation of the pupils (to let in more light) and/or increased sweating. (Native Remedies) Having a phobia is a fear of something. Whatever this phobia may be, it creates a feeling of fear and causes irrational and sometimes inexplainable behavior. Being afraid of confined spaces can cause some people to avoid travelling in elevators at all costs, others who are are fearful of flying may never travel abroad. There are fears in everyone, a fear of growing old or a fear of dying is possibly an unhealthy fear as ageing and death comes to us all. Fear can present itself when feeling nervous about something, perhaps before an important occasion or a speech in front of people; there may be a fear of forgetting what to say or a fear of embarrassing oneself. Apprehension is fear and sometimes an apprehensive manner is due to the unknown, expecting something bad will happen creates a sense of apprehension. Anxiety is also fear, having experienced something that created dissatisfaction or dislike, there can be a fear in this feeling recurring, therefore an anxious fear is felt. In some people anxiety can control their lives and medication is necessary, normal worries and healthy fear are less likely to make you feel this way. Fear in children is slightly different to fear in adults. As they are unable to rationalize and compare their fears to anything other than the way they feel, a child feels an actual threat by what they are in fear of, sometimes this can cause inconsolable behavior, only rationalized when they are able to understand they are not in any real danger. Fear can be controlled by the mind. It is the brain that gives the message of something to be afraid of; if that fear is an irrational fear (spiders), then it is possible to overcome this fear by thinking logically. Unless you are faced with a wild tarantula, the tiny spider can do no harm. By telling yourself that the spider is more fearful of humans may put your fear in its place. Fear is completely normal and is a useful tool when recognizing and distinguishing danger; how we respond is according to our fear.

5-Pen Pc Technology Essay

P-ISM is a â€Å"Pen-style Personal Networking Gadget Package†. This technology is a technology of five gadget package which has five functions: 1. Pen-style cellular phone provide handwriting data input function. 2. Virtual Keyboard. 3. Compact size Projector. 4. Camera Scanner. 5. Personal ID key with cashless pass function. These five gadgets communicate with each other by the use of short-range wireless technology. This technology uses the cellular phone function to set up a connection with the internet . Bluetooth is extensively used because this technology permits to transmit data(like songs, files, photos, phone numbers etc.) or construct connections without wires. This is very effective because we can able to connect at anywhere and at anytime without having wires. They are used at the frequency band of 2.4 GHz ISM (although they use different access mechanisms). Blue tooth mechanism is used for exchanging signal status information between two devices. This techniques have been developed that do not require communication between the two devices (such as Blue tooth’s Adaptive Frequency Hopping), the most efficient and comprehensive solution for the most serious problems can be accomplished by silicon vendors. They can implement information exchange capabilities within the designs of the Bluet ooth. LED Projector: The LED Projector takes the place of monitor which projects on the screen. The size of the projector is of A4 size. It has the approximate resolution capacity of 1024 X 768. Thus it gives more clarity and good picture. Virtual Keyboard: Virtual Laser Keyboard (VLK)is a new gadget for PC users which replaces the hardware—keyboard. It through laser beam onto the desk or onto the flat surface where you can find the full-size perfectly operating QWERTY arrangement keyboard which connects to the PC as well as to other handheld devices(PDA’s , tablet PC’s etc.). Digital Camera: Its working is like the webcam, you can do video recording, video conferencing with it. It can connect with other devices and because of its small size you can carry it in your pocket. It has 360 degree visual communication device. Battery: Usually the laptops and other devices comes with the battery life of 4 hours , 6 hours etc. but this small device has the battery life of 6+(i.e. 6 days) and for normal use its battery work for 2 weeks. Author:-Ms. Deepti Gupta September 20, 2012 http://www.blog.gurukpo.com/5-pen-pc-technology 5 Pen PC Technology Documentation Free Download P-ISM (â€Å"Pen-style Personal Networking Gadget Package†), which is nothing but the new discovery, which is under developing, stage by NEC Corporation. 5 Pen PC Technology is a gadget package including five functions: a pen-style cellular phone with a handwriting data input function, virtual keyboard, a very small projector, camera scanner, and personal ID key with cashless pass function. 5 Pen PC Technology are connected with one another through short-range wireless technology. The whole set is also connected to the Internet through the cellular phone function. This personal gadget in a minimalist pen style enables the ultimate ubiquitous computing. In fact, no-one expects much activity on 802.11n installations until the middle of 2008. â€Å"Rolling out 802.11n would mean a big upgrade for customers who already have full Wi-Fi coverage, and would be a complex add-on to existing wired networks, for those who haven’t. Bluetooth is widely used because we can able to transfer data or make connections without wires. 5 Pen PC Technology is very effective because we can able to connect whenever we need without having wires. 5 Pen PC Technology are used at the frequency band of 2.4 GHz ISM (although they use different access mechanisms). Blue tooth mechanism is used for exchanging signal status information between two devices. 5 Pen PC Technology techniques have been developed that do not require communication between the two devices (such as Blue tooth’s Adaptive Frequency Hopping), the most efficient and comprehensive solution for the most serious problems can be accomplished by silicon vendors. They can implement information exchange capabilities within the designs of the Blue tooth. The circuit diagram for the 802.11B/G is given below. It is nothing but also type of Blue tooth. Using this connectivity we can also connect it with the internet and can access it anywhere in the world. LED Projector: The role of monitor is taken by LED Projector which projects on the screen. The size of the projector is of A4 size. It has the approximate resolution capacity of 1024 X 768. Thus it is gives more clarity and good picture. Virtual Keyboard: The Virtual Laser Keyboard (VKB) is the ULTIMATE new gadget for PC users. The VKB emits laser on to the desk where it looks like the keyboard having QWERTY arrangement of keys i.e., it uses a laser beam to generate a full-size perfectly operating laser keyboard that smoothly connects to of PC and Most of the handheld devices (PDA’s, tablet PC’s). The I-Tech laser keyboard acts exactly like any other â€Å"ordinary† keyboard: Features of virtual keyboards are: 1.VKB settings can be changed by Sound:   2.Controllable Virtual Keyboard sound effects (key clicks) 3.Connection: Connection to the appropriate Laptop/PC port 4.Intensity: Intensity of the projected Virtual Keyboard   5.Timeouts: coordinated timeouts to conserve the Virtual Keyboard’s battery life 6.Sensitivity: adjustable sensitivity of the Virtual Keyboard 7.Auto-repeat: Allows the VKB to automatically repeat a key based on prescribed parameters. Battery: The most important part in the portable type of computer is its battery. Usually batteries must be small in size and work for longer time. It comes with a battery life of 6+. For normal use it can be used for 2 weeks.This ‘pen sort of instrument’ produces both the monitor as well as the keyboard on any flat surfaces from where you can carry out functions you would normally do on your desktop computer. REFERENCE:- 2012/07/5 http://university-help.blogspot.com Posted by Mahesh

Critical film review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Critical film review - Essay Example Until today, out-of-body experiences raise eyebrows, and for some, they would rather shrug it off as mere dreams with nothing beyond that. Dreams and reality do not meet for many. In this film though, the two are merged with a lot of ease (McElroy, 2007). As the story opens, detective Toshimi Konakawa is seeing Paprika for counseling. He has a recurring dream that has disturbed him for quite a while. As much as disembodied experiences are not as credible to the natural senses as other forms of reality, they are real, and they exist. If we become obsessed so much with disembodied experiences than in other easily tangible reality, we can be overwhelmed. Individuals cannot understand the nature of this other reality that is a bit too abstract (Haddock, 2001). This is what happens to Doctor Torataro Shima when he realizes that the gadget he treasured had been stolen and there was no hope of getting it back. He almost commits suicide. To Shima, this scientific discovery is like a dream and the experience makes him walk on clouds. Dreams and out-of-body experiences are pleasurable, but it is clear too that there is a big disconnect between reality and such experience. Many people including philosophers of ancient time agree that dreams come to reveal things repressed in to our unconscious mind. In this film, when people get to move around freely and interact in dreams, they are in a way building on the same premises. As Konakawa comes to realize later as the film closes, the blanks he had been having in his recurrent dreams were as a result of an unfinished film that they wanted to produce with deceased friend. Another eminent element is that experience in dreams and out-of-body episodes can actualize in the reality. In his constant dream, and in his role, in the film, he acts as a cop; just what they had agreed with his deceased friend when preparing for their movie (Schofield, 2004). Paprika is almost

Theory of Extreme Capital Structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Theory of Extreme Capital Structure - Essay Example Therefore, capital structure can be defined as the arrangement of capital. In order to analyse capital structure, we need to highlight the difference between capital structure and financial structure. The terms are interchanged in some circles to mean the same, but they are not quite the same. Financial structure is the sum of all the means the firm uses to fund its activities. Therefore, financial structure comprises of net worth and liabilities of the company i.e. short and long term. The capital structure on the other hand is financial structure excluding short term borrowing. Capital structure has already been seen as two-fold, with the finance and asset structure. The source of capital is what determines what asset will be purchased. The structure of capital is categorised as follows: 1. According to sources: The structure may either be simple or complex. A simple structure consists of a single source while the complex is where the sources are more than one. (Although retained e arnings is not considered an additional source). This mode is only possible under the fund concept because it is rare for a firm to have one asset, invalidating the asset concept. 2. According to sources This is broadly categorised into internal and external sources. Internal sources comprise of share capital (bonus issue), capital reserve, and reserve and surplus. On the hand the external sources include share capital (bonus issue excluded), share premium, forfeited shares, long term and short-term liabilities and debentures. 3. According to ownership This is either ownership capital or creditorship (debt) capital. Ownership capital includes equity share capital and retained earnings while creditorship comprises of debentures, long-term and short-term liabilities. It is agreed by all accountants where preference shares should be grouped as they have the both elements of ownership and debt. 4. According to cost behaviour This classifies the assets as either fixed cost or variable co st, depending on their expense implications. The fixed cost capital include preference share, long term debt and debentures whereas variable cost capital include equity share and short term liabilities. Firms have different capital structures depending on industry, company type, and proportion of capital contribution. The theories of capital structure try to ask the pertinent questions in leveraging, valuation, and financial balance. This involves evaluating how a firm can affect its total valuation factoring debt and equity, how debt affects the firm’s position. This is by use of accounting ratios 1  Where  is the firm’s debt yield, assuming the element of perpetuity of debt 2.  [E=EBIT-I] Where we assume 100% dividend payout and the firms earning are constant with no element of growth. Therefore, the earnings/price ratio gives the market discount rate, which equals the present value of the series of expected future dividends at the existing market value of the share. 3.  Where  is the firm’s overall capitalisation rate. It computation is normally the weighting of the cost of capital as shown below + The theories of capital structure try to explain the relationship between capital, leverage and the firm’s value. What we want to know is what happens to , and when the degree of leverage (D/V) increases or how is the value of capital

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Essay

The Role of Natural Capital in the Week versus Strong Sustainability Debate - Essay Example The issue of sustainability is therefore subject to both traditional and contemporary arguments, the underlying interest being to define the natural world in the view of both arguments. The weak versus strong sustainability debate emanates from both environmental and economic concerns. A sustainable development is one that is rooted on the strongholds of both the economy and the environmental. In this regard, two principle concepts emerge. These are: natural and manufactured capital. The debate surrounding these two concepts gives rise to weak versus strong sustainability debate, with the role of natural capital being the focal point in the debate. The defining variables of both weak and strong sustainability are essential to consider in the evaluation of the role of natural capital in the context of the two. Sustainable development is defined as that development that provides the potential and ability to meet present needs without jeopardising the potential and ability of future gen erations to meet their own needs (Hartwick, 2007, p.972-974). In other words, the needs of both present and future generations are central to the achievement of sustainable development. It is important to note that the needs referred to are cultural, social, economic and political in nature. ... The process to sustainable development is not a smooth process. There are biases associated with sustainable development, each of which influences the process in one way or another. These biases include: tragedy of the commons, common costs, private profits, uncertainty, future discounting among others (Pearce, 2006, p.85-101). A number of phenomena are presented by the highlighted biases. Common ownership of resources is evident, exacerbating the need to grab resources within the shortest time possible. Industrial pollution is inevitable in land, air and water. Furthermore, the cost of pollution is transferred to the society, while profits are reaped by privately owned enterprises. The process of sustainable development is therefore highly characterized by externalities, both positive and negative. Uncertainty continues to encompass economic and environmental undertakings prior to sustainable development. Global warming around the world remains evident, but its extent is uncertain. There are underlying ecological and/or economic disasters that need to be accounted for in sustainable development process. It is also argued that sustainable development is primarily concerned with the future. While this is true, the present must be set in a way that aids concern for the future. The availability of resources today does not guarantee the same availability in future. Utilization and conservation of resources for the present and future generations yields the weak versus strong sustainability debate, with emphasis on natural capital today and in future. Natural capital is defined as the capacity of the environment to provide goods and services for use by the population (Pezzey, 2009, p.26). The population in this case

Documentary film Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Documentary film - Movie Review Example I thought that Ben Bernanke and Henry Paulson were correct in wanting to prevent institutions such as Behr Sterns, Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac and Lehman Brothers from going bankrupt. It appeared that if one financial institution was allowed to fail than a domino effect would begin to occur. In many cases, that did begin to happen when there was a refusal to bail out Lehman Brothers. When Lehman Brothers failed, it froze a lot of money for banks to lend out for short-term loans, which in effect halted a lot of the commerce that occurs within the country on a daily basis. The compromise of preventing Behr Stern from going bankrupt by selling their stock shares off to JP Morgan for $2 per share seemed like an extreme measure initially. However after some thought, it was probably the best option for both the company, the economy and the Federal Reserve. While all parties wanted to avoid adverse effects of Behr Stern going bankrupt, selling off the shares for such a low price definitely sent a message that this type of assistance from the Federal Reserve to fix these types of faulty business practices would come with consequences. There was also a lot of criticism towards the idea of giving capital injections to bail out large institutions, such as giving $80 billion to AIG to prevent them from going bankrupt or covering the $30 billion in toxic assets to Behr Stern. I understand the arguments against the idea, however I do not think that some of the arguments were made on fact and were made more on political principle. For example, many in Congress did not want to support the bill to give money to bail out the financial companies because they felt it went against the idea of free and open markets. While giving money to private companies did go against the idea of a free market economy, there were many experts and evidence showing that a bailout

Norwegian Cruise Lines Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Norwegian Cruise Lines - Case Study Example In case of NCL, multifactor productivity measure is used. Yes, productivity measurement is extremely essential for NCL in order to judge the efficiency and effectiveness of the renowned brand in the market. Along with this, it also helps to determine the cost effectiveness and return on investment of the organization of a specific financial year that might be used for the planning the level of investments for the next financial year. Other than this, with the help of multifactor productivity measure, we might also judge the requirements of innovative technology and equipments to cope up with the changing trends of the market. By doing so, it might prove effective for NCL to enhance its financial position and brand image in the market among other rivals of the market. In order to make the customers fully satisfied, NCL tries to offer varied types of service packages. It helps in improving the reliability and trust of the customers over the brand resulting in amplification of the entire portfolio and revenue as well. Keeping these dreams in mind, NCL tries to offer fleet-wide services, cabin service, room service, dining service and bar services to its customers. It is done to enhance its image and position within the minds of its customers so that they might return again and again in long run. Other than this, the charge of fleet-wide tipping is very low and affordable for all and so it is highly preferred. Apart from this, varied other services are also offered by NCL like, guest services, hotel services, technical support services along with shopping services for the customers as well. Moreover, extremely beautiful casino services are also offered by NCL to its customers to retain its image within the minds of the customers. Hence, due to the presence of such wonderful service package facilities, NCL is highly preferred by maximum extent of the customers in the entire market. The competitive priority of NCL is to remain reputation

Communication and Patient Safety Research Design Paper

Communication and Patient Safety Design - Research Paper Example The paper "Communication and Patient Safety Research Design" looks at how samples can be taken without any discrimination. The paper discusses various ways to collect and analyze data before coming up with a strong conclusion based on the research findings and results. The conclusion of this paper is very important to nurses and caregivers as they realize the importance of effective communication in the healthcare facility. Effective communication is vital to the safety of every patient and every nurse is aware of that. For a patient to have a positive outcome, nurses are expected to understand their problems and to effectively communicate with them, noting critical areas that mostly affect the patient. With communication, the nurse is able to identify problems and come up with various ways to solve the problems that the patient might have. It is, however, a common scenario to find that nurses do not provide effective communication to patients and, as a result, cause complications. M ost nurses believe that there is no mathematical proof to evidence that effective communication is vital to positive patient safety and as a result, end up ignoring this very important concept of communication. This paper critically analyzes a sample population of patients to come up with a statistical proof that effective communication is vital to a positive safety outcome from the patient. Is there a mathematical proof that effective communication is vital to patient’s safety? There is a correlation between effective patient communication.... Literature Review For many years, professional nurses have tried to link effective communication to positive patient feedback. Many articles written on this topic bring out varying importance of effective communication to the positive outcome of the patient. One article by Frankel identified that for a patient to show positive results, it was necessary for all parties to have an effective communication with each other. Nurses and caregivers have to understand the patients by involving them in various clinical procedures. Factors that influence communication were also identified. The key factor that was identified was the system that the entire hospital used. Some hospitals and healthcare facilities have large and complicated systems that make it hard for patients to effectively communicate with healthcare providers. The larger and more complex the system of the hospital, the harder it is for the patients to effectively communicate with the healthcare providers. Due to this factor, it is necessary for healthcare facilities to ensure that their systems are simple to understand and that the hospital or healthcare facility is organized into departments that allow effective communication between the patient and the caregiver. Another factor that influenced communication between the patient and their caregiver is the nature of the patient. There are patients who are hard to understand. They are complicated and in most cases would not communicate effectively with the caregiver. This is one of the major communication challenges that a caregiver might face. When faced with any hostile patient who is not willing to provide any useful information that may help in their case, it is common for errors to occur. Thus, nurses should ensure that they fully understand their

Crime prevention through environmental design Essay

Crime prevention through environmental design - Essay Example Through CPTED, people's lives will improve since they will no longer fear for any vandalism that may occur ("CPTED Crime," para 1). CPTED theories state that in order to attain a crime-free environment, the community should not rely on the law enforcers alone. An interaction among law enforcement officers, architects, city planners, landscape and interior designers and resident volunteers is deemed necessary to stop vandalism. Through a 'built environment' that is obtained by this interaction among the major participants in building a community, the occurrence of crime will be averted. CPTED's 'built environment' is basically building a community such that its physical environment positively influences human behaviors wherein people who live in the area perceives it to be a safe environment where law offenders will find it too risky to commit any crime within the area ("CPTED Crime," para 9). For communities who have utilized the CPTED concepts, the results were impressive. Criminal activity were reported to have decreased for as much as 40% ("CPTED Crime," para 3). There are four main principles that cover crime prevention through environmental design. Natural access control is one strategy where it encourages the community to create a differentiation between public and private places. By selectively placing entrances and exits, fencing, lighting and landscape to limit access or control flow, natural access control occurs ("Crime prevention," para 26). Streets and sidewalks should be planned and designed in manners that would limit offenders an access to commit crimes ("CPTED Crime," para 6). Natural surveillance is another strategy adopted by CPTED that encourages maximum visibility of people and areas that may be potential spots for offenders to commit a crime. Architectural designs of buildings including residential edifices must obtain natural surveillance of the various areas that may provide access to lawbreakers and harm the community. Maximum visibility includes proper nighttime lightings along the sidewalks and residential buildings i n order to limit the escape routes for the criminals ("CPTED Crime," para 4 & "Crime prevention," para 23). Territorial reinforcement on the other hand is another concept of CPTED that promotes social control through increased definition of space and proprietary concern. Landscape designs are used in order to strengthen a sense of ownership of a certain property where intruders are easily identified. Fences and signs are most commonly used territorial designs that follows this CPTED strategy ("CPTED Crime," para 5 & "Crime prevention," para 29).Lastly, target hardening is the most popularly known strategy that prevents the occurrence of a criminal act. This concept basically refers to the different features that prohibit law offenders from entering any premises through locks and bolts that are found in windows and doors ("CPTED Crime," para 6). Furthermore, there are two other strategies that CPTED utilizes in preventing crimes. Maintenance and activity support are two other activit ies that CPTED promotes. ("Crime prevention," para 33) In Herkimer, New York's most recent crime statistics, larceny obtains to have one of the most offenses among other kinds of crimes. Thus, a more comprehensive program must be developed in order to prevent further increase in crime rates that does not alone involve

Translation Approaches Essay Example for Free

Translation Approaches Essay The development of trade and industry has always given rise to changes in the evolution of communities, bringing about new social forms and stratification of society. This in its turn accelerated the appearance of businesses and factories, arrival of new professions, and urbanization. Since the times of Perestroika (which was started in 1989 by Mikhail Gorbatchev) Russian society has been experiencing dramatic changes that affected the countrys politics, economy and social life. In the past 15 years peoples attitudes to certain things have changed gradually but profoundly. We have gotten so used to these new attitudes that its hard to believe it hasnt always been like this. With the arrival of the 21st century we have experienced changes in the economic, legal, technological and other areas which affect our everyday lives. Social changes entail linguistic transformations. Russians in their everyday life got used to certain terms to the point that they no longer consider them terms—ATM machine (Ð ±Ã °Ã ½Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚); deposit (Ð ´Ã µÃ ¿Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ¸Ã'‚); account (Ã' Ã'‡Ð µÃ'‚); contract (Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ºÃ'‚); download (Ð ·Ã °Ã ³Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ¶Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'); etc. The terminology of international development is constantly evolving as new socioeconomic concepts emerge. In over 10 years the writer has witnessed the appearance of a number of neologisms, either entirely new terms or established terms used with a different meaning 1. In different societies this process may take different directions depending on the needs and wants of its people. In Russian society an explosive growth of terms pertaining to the economic and computer areas can be observed. Russians largely borrow these terms from the languages of countries with a longer capitalistic and technological tradition (like the USA, for example), thus bringing English words and expressions into the language. Though some of these borrowings have corresponding equivalents in Russian, the English terms are being extensively used by the population, as further evidence of the social changes that have taken place in the country (a similar process would have been inconceivable in the cold war period). Translation is undoubtedly a social phenomenon. Translators choices are influenced not only by the source language text and the peculiarities of the target audience, but also by the era to which the translator belongs—in translating for the modern reader it is necessary to take into consideration creative traditions, literary norms and conventions that are familiar to the reader of a certain society. Nowadays, due to various political changes and dynamic economic and technological growth, the Russian language has acquired numerous terms, which very quickly migrate from the class of neologisms to the category of familiar and frequently used words. Few of these words (computer terms, for example) do not possess the corresponding equivalent in Russian; many of them do have a Russian (very often explanatory) equivalent. For instance, such nouns as brand, merger, summit, default, deposit, site, spam, tuner, web surfing and adjectives as local, creative, top have equivalents in Russian, but the new foreign word is usually preferred (the tendency as a rule is started by the mass media). this may be explained by the fact that a borrowing often has a semantic compactness, whereas a Russian equivalent has a descriptive character—in some cases a whole sentence must be used. So translators have to deal with the problem of either choosing a popular borrowing or go with the equivalent already existing in the language. Translators of a new generation prefer not to translate so-called Americanisms and foreign food names, as they are familiar to people of all countries, and the translator no longer has the absolute need to always find a translation of a term in the target language if this would make the target-language text lose credibility. This is called excessive translation. An excessive translation is a translation that fails to foreignise/exoticise, i. e. , use source-language terms in the target-language text, to the degree that is now acceptable2. Those educated in the 60s, 50s and earlier strongly believe that foreign equivalents should be avoided, especially when a corresponding term or notion exists in the language: In very rare cases, only when its absolutely necessary for the narration of a character to use a foreign word, a Russian equivalent is always better and more appropriate. This holds true for newspapers and journals, and is hundredfold more important in fiction. 3 Certainly appearing of new criteria to what should be called an adequate translation affected the translation of fiction. Thats why new translations of novels already translated into Russian appeared recently. The most popular ones are the translations of F. S. Fitzgeralds novels The Great Gatsby and Tender is the Night. The general tendency is a frequent use of anglicisms in the TL, even though they are not present in the text of the original: Now it has become a summer resort of notable and fashionable people; in 1925 it was almost deserted after its English clientele went north in April; only the cupolas of dozen old villas rotted like water lilies among the massed pines4. The phrase a summer resort of notable and fashionable people in Russian corresponds to many various bungalows have been built (Ð ­Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ã' Ã µÃ ¹Ã'‡Ð °Ã'  Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ã'‚ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ½Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¸Ã »Ã ¸ Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ½Ã'‹Ã'… Ð ±Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã ³Ã °Ã »Ã ¾). For no obvious reason, the translator uses a nowadays fashionable world bungalow, which is not even present in the original English text. Other examples might include the following translating inconsistencies (fraternity was translated into Russian translation by the equivalent of student corporations; market umbrella was translated as huge tent). In all cases Russian equivalents could be used (as were in the previous translation by E. D. Kalashnikova). There is also a number of colloquial words and expressions unnecessarily used in the new translation: cafe is translated as kafeshka (a diminutive form for cafe); specious reasoning is translated as tufta (a colloquial word, meaning malarkey, crap); horse-trader as torgash (a derisive synonym of merchant, could be translated as torgovets or, as it was in Kalashinkovas version, barishnik); worlds bazaar received an equivalent of world market (it sounded so much nicer in Kalashnikovas translation as lifes fair—jarmarka zhizni). The only positive trend in the new translation philosophy is that, instead of generalizing or omitting certain notions (which didnt exist in the Soviet society), the exact specific equivalent can be used: terrier is now present in the Russian language, although in the first translation it had to be translated as little dog (pjosik); cauliflower had to be translated as cabbage. The use of these nouns is possible thanks to the economic transformations on the Russian market, not because of a translators talent. First translations of the novels that werent published in Russia before due to a number of reasons, for example, explicit descriptions of sexuality, have also appeared. John Updikes novels, known for his pointillist style5 filled with sharp realistic descriptions, have just recently become available to the Russian reader. On the whole, the artistic qualities of Updikes style are not lost in these translations. However, certain translating choices are not very clear mostly due to the fact that the effect produced by the original is not the same as the one produced by the translation. In Rabbit, Run, Updikes most famous novel, there are instances when women characters appear less appealing in Russian than in the original. Rabbits wife, who, being compared to his mistress, is described as mysterious, an opaque and virginal wife6 in Russian turned into an incomprehensible, sullen and indifferent boulder7 (Ð ½Ã µÃ ¿Ã ¾Ã ½Ã' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹, Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã'€Ã'ŽÐ ¼Ã ¾Ã ¹, Ð ±Ã µÃ ·Ã'Æ'Ã'‡Ð °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ºÃ ¾ Ð ²Ã' Ã µÃ ¼Ã'Æ' Ð ³Ã »Ã'‹Ð ±Ã ¾Ã ¹)—clearly, the translator is taking the mistresss side in this situation. The same mistress, when Rabbit is thinking about returning to her, reasonably inquires How would you support me? . 8 In Russian this stylistically neutral phrase changes into a rude vulgar expression meaning On what a fig would you feed me? (Na kakie shishi ti budesh menja kormit)9. The references that we have about certain phenomena are not always taken into consideration. When describing the Springers the author remarks on some of their qualities, which are thoroughly meshed into the strategies of middle-class life. 10 In Russian strategies of middle-class life become petit bourgeois way of life11 (Ð ¼Ã µÃ »Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ±Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¶Ã'Æ'Ð °Ã ·Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã · Ð ¶Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ½Ã ¸)—an expression that has a very negative connotation for the Russian reader. Somehow, in other situations, rather emotional English equivalents are substituted by neutral Russian words. In the phrase The reason Fosnacht keeps getting Billy all this expensive crap is probably he feels guilty for leaving him12 the word crap which shows Rabbits negative and scornful attitude to the discussed problem is translated by the noun things (shtuki), in translation the whole communicative aim of this situation is lost. 13 Russian linguists, who assign great importance to the communicative function of the process of translation, are certainly concerned about the quality of the published translations. Maybe this is one of the reasons why so many articles devoted to the problems of Linguistic Pragmatics are being published. Linguistic Pragmatics underlines the necessity of interpreting the situation and analyzing the communicative possibilities of how it can be perceived by those involved in this communicative process, thus providing the basis for human interaction. The translation, viewed within the framework of Linguistic Pragmatics, concentrates not on the semantic meaning of the SL text, but on its communicative aim. Questions about translation quality push Applied Linguistics to a new stage of development (because it includes the science of translation). Arguments on how to treat numerous neologisms and borrowings arriving into the Russian language have revived the advancement of Lexicography—the science of dictionary compiling. Online dictionaries gain more significance for both specialists and amateur users. As online dictionaries can be regularly updated, their users wont have to deal with the problem of outdated vocabulary, which will still exist in the database, but with the necessary markers. Specialized vocabulary is duly marked and all the possible combinations are represented in the database, for e. g. the noun balance has many meanings pertaining to different spheres such as aviation, automobile industry, banking, biology, mining, bookkeeping, etc. , but hyperlinks take users to the needed meaning in seconds. Therefore in the 21st century, when effective communication has become the center of our professional lives, the importance of finding better ways of translating is increasing. Due to globalization and establishment of transnational corporations, new criteria appear of what can be regarded as an adequate translation. Introducing neologisms and borrowings into translation of articles from magazines and scientific journals might be viewed as a modern and open-minded approach; however translators should be extremely careful about not overloading fiction with unnecessary foreign expressions. It is important to remember at whom the translation is targeted and what communicative effect it is supposed to produce. The debates about what can be considered an equivalent translation give rise to a new stage of development of Applied Linguistics and other linguistic sciences, which are becoming more and more concerned about achieving communicative excellence in the modern world. Formation of English Neologisms Introduction Distinctive features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Peculiar Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1. The use of word-formative means (suffixes, prefixes, composition). Among the most productive neologism-formative suffixes are –ian, -ation: Ballistician – Ã' Ã ¿Ã µÃ'†Ð ¸Ã °Ã »Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚ Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã °Ã »Ã »Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ºÃ µ ( as musician, physician, etc); Commodification – Ð ¸Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ·Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ´Ã µÃ ½Ã µÃ ³ Ð ² Ð ºÃ °Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µ Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'€Ð °, Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã °Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¸ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã ¼Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ½Ã ° Ð ´Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã ¾Ã ¹ ( as simplification). Other productive neologism-formative suffixes are: -ship brinkmanship – Ð ±Ã °Ã »Ã °Ã ½Ã' Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ½Ã ° Ð ³Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸ Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¹Ã ½Ã'‹; craftsmanship – Ð ¸Ã' Ã ºÃ'Æ'Ã' Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾ Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ´Ã µÃ ¹Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¸Ã'  Ð ½Ã ° Ð ¼Ã °Ã' Ã' Ã'‹; showmanship – Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ºÃ °Ã ·Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'€ Ð »Ã ¸Ã'†Ð ¾Ã ¼; Ð ¿Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¿Ã'‹Ð »Ã'Å' Ð ² Ð ³Ã »Ã °Ã ·Ã ° -dom bangdom – Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ³Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ±Ã °Ã ½Ã ´Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ·Ã ¼; bogdom – Ð ¶Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ¿Ã ¸Ã º; suckerdom Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã µÃ' Ã ´Ã µÃ'† -ize  itemize – Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã' Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã ºÃ'‚Ð °Ã ¼; institutionalize – Ã'Æ'Ð ·Ã °Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'; unionize – Ð ±Ã'‹Ã' ‚Ã'Å' Ã'‡Ð »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¾Ã ¼ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'„Ã' Ã ¾Ã'ŽÐ ·Ã ° Neologisms formed via composition are constantly appearing in the English language as well: Laptop (= notebook) – Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã ¿Ã'Å'Ã'ŽÃ'‚Ð µÃ'€ (Ð ´Ã ¾Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¾ – Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã ¿Ã'Å'Ã'ŽÃ'‚Ð µÃ'€, Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ´Ã µÃ'€Ð ¶Ã °Ã'‚ Ð ½Ã ° Ð ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã' Ã'… Ð ¸Ã »Ã ¸ Ð ² Ð ²Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µ Ð ±Ã »Ã ¾Ã ºÃ ½Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð °); Know-how – Ð ½Ã ¾Ã'Æ'-Ã'…Ð °Ã'Æ', Ã'‚Ð µÃ'…Ð ½Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¸Ã' ; Stay-in – Ð ¿Ã ¸Ã ºÃ µÃ'‚Ð ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ; Sit-in – Ã' Ã ¸Ã ´Ã' Ã'‡Ð °Ã'  Ð ·Ã °Ã ±Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ºÃ °; Buy-in –Ð ²Ã'‹Ð ³Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã °Ã'  Ã' Ã ´Ã µÃ »Ã ºÃ ° (Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ºÃ'€Ã'‹Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã µ Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã'…Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ² Ð ·Ã ° Ã' Ã'‡Ð µÃ'‚ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã °Ã ²Ã'†Ð ° Ð ½Ã ° Ð ±Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¶Ã µ); Shut-down – Ð ·Ã °Ã ºÃ'€Ã'‹Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã µ, Ð »Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ²Ã ¸Ã ´Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'  (Ð ·Ã °Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã °); Brain-drain – Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ð µÃ'‡Ð ºÃ ° Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ²; Has-been – Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ´Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å', Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ²Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ¹ Ã' Ã ²Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ²Ã »Ã ¸Ã' Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ. Here the challenge for a translator is to preserve the style of a news headline and at the same time give an adequate russian variant of a headline: â€Å"Russia: the brain-drain drains technological progress† – â€Å"Ð  Ã ¾Ã' Ã' Ã ¸Ã'  : Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ð µÃ'‡Ð ºÃ ° Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ² Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ¸Ã'‚ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã µ Ð ²Ã'‹Ã' Ã ¾Ã ºÃ ¸Ã'… Ã'‚Ð µÃ'…Ð ½Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã¢â‚¬ . ( «International Herald Tribune »). 2. Recomprehension of the existing words. It means that well-known words acquire new meanings. For example, the word summit which is frequently used in news headlines and is traditionally rendered into Russian Ð ²Ã µÃ'€Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ½Ã °, Ð ²Ã'‹Ã' Ã'ˆÐ °Ã'  Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'‡Ð ºÃ ° acquired the new meaning in the late 70-is: Ð ²Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð µÃ'‡Ð ° Ð ½Ã ° Ð ²Ã'‹Ã' Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ¼ Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ½Ã µ, Ð ²Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð µÃ'‡Ð ° Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ³Ã ¾Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã °Ã'€Ã' Ã'‚Ð ². Here is another example. The medical term domino denotes an operation during which a surgeon transplants patient A with a heart and lungs of the donor who has died of brain hemorrhage, and patient B is transplanted with an old heart of patient A. This neologism emerged in the 80-s as a result of the re-comprehension of the word domino the game in which each die is divided into two equal parts. The basic meaning of the word colour-blind is Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º, Ð ½Ã µ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã »Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð °Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ã'†Ð ²Ã µÃ'‚Ð °, Ð ´Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ½Ã ¸Ã º. In the last quarter of the 20-th century it acquired the new meaning – Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º, Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ½Ã µ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ´Ã µÃ »Ã' Ã µÃ'‚ Ð »Ã'ŽÐ ´Ã µÃ ¹ Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¸ Ð ½Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¾Ã ½Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ (Ã' Ã'‚Ð ½Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¹) Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã °Ã ´Ã »Ã µÃ ¶Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚ Ð ¸. The word shuttle originated as Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ½Ã ¾Ã º (Ð ºÃ °Ã º Ð ´Ã µÃ'‚Ð °Ã »Ã'Å' Ã'ˆÐ ²Ã µÃ ¹Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã °Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ½Ã'‹). Via recomprehension of its original meaning it acquired several new ones: Ð ºÃ ¾Ã' Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'€Ð °Ã ±Ã »Ã'Å' Ð ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¸Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ·Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'  (shuttle spaceship); Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ'†, Ã' Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ'€Ã'ˆÐ °Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ã'€Ð µÃ ¹Ã' Ã'‹ Ð ·Ã ° Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'€Ð °Ã ¼Ã ¸ Ð ² Ã' Ã ¾Ã' Ã µÃ ´Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã'‹ Ð ¸ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Æ'Ã'‡Ð °Ã'ŽÃ'‰Ð ¸Ã ¹ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ±Ã'‹Ð »Ã'Å' Ð ½Ã ° Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'†Ð µ Ð ² Ã'†Ð µÃ ½Ã µ (shuttle trader). A big amount of neologisms formed in this way have appeared in computer terminology: Web – Ð ²Ã' Ã µÃ ¼Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ¿Ã °Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ° (ИÐ ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€ Ð ½Ã µÃ'‚); Mouse – Ð ¼Ã'‹Ã'ˆÃ'Å'; Site – Ã' Ã °Ã ¹Ã'‚ (Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'†Ð ° Ð ² ИÐ ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð ½Ã µÃ'‚Ð µ); Browser – Ð ±Ã'€Ð °Ã'Æ'Ð ·Ã µÃ'€ (Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ð ³Ã ». to browse – Ð ±Ã »Ã'Æ'Ð ¶Ã ´Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'); Serve – Ã' Ã µÃ'€Ð ²Ã µÃ'€ (Ð ¾Ã'‚ to serve – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã' Ã »Ã'Æ'Ð ¶Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'). When making a translation of a news headline containing a neologism formed by means of recomprehension it is recommended either to keep to the method of descriptive translation or give the transliteration of the neologism with the following explanation which as a rule is to be found in the beginning of the article : â€Å"The country’s fifth domino was carried out in Arizona† – â€Å"Ð’ Ð °Ã ¼Ã µÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¼ Ã'ˆÃ'‚Ð °Ã'‚Ð µ Ð Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ° Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ ´Ã µÃ ½Ã ° Ð ¿Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'  Ð ² Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã µ Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'   «Ã ´Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã ½Ã ¾Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬ . ( «Sunday Times »). (The set-out of the russian variant reads: ДÐ ¾Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã ½Ã ¾ – Ð ¼Ã µÃ ´Ã ¸Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð ¼Ã ¸Ã ½, Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã » Ð °Ã ºÃ'‚Ð ¸Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¾ Ã'Æ'Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'‚Ã'€Ð µÃ ±Ã »Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã'  Ð ½Ã µ Ã'‚Ð °Ã º Ã'Æ'Ð ¶ Ð ´Ã °Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¾. ОÐ ½ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ½Ã °Ã'‡Ð °Ã µÃ'‚ Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'Ž Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã °Ã ´Ã ºÃ µ Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ³Ã °Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ², Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸ Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¿Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚Ã'Æ' Ð  Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã °Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'ŽÃ'‚ Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã µ Ã' Ã µÃ'€Ð ´Ã'†Ð µ Ð ¸ Ð »Ã µÃ ³Ã ºÃ ¸Ã µ Ð ¾Ã'‚ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Æ'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ²Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ³Ã ¾ Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¸Ã ·Ã »Ã ¸Ã' Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ² Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ³ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã'€Ð °, Ð ° Ð ¿Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚Ã'Æ' Б Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ' Ã °Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'ŽÃ'‚ Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã'€Ð ¾Ã µ Ã' Ã µÃ'€Ð ´Ã'†Ð µ Ð ¿Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚Ð ° Ð ). 3. Abbreviations and acronyms. Here are the abbreviations most widely used in news headlines: S. W. I. F. T. – The Society for Worldwide Inter-bank Financial Telecommunications; TCB – take care of business – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ'Æ'Ã' Ã ¿Ã µÃ ²Ã °Ã '‚Ã'Å' Ð ² Ð ±Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ½Ã µÃ' Ã µ; Benelux – Belgium, Netherlands, Luxemburg – БÐ µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã »Ã'ŽÐ ºÃ' ; CCFF – Compensatory and Contingency Financing Facility. (ÐÅ"Ð µÃ'…Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ¼ Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã ¿Ã µÃ ½Ã' Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¸ Ã'‡Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ²Ã'‹Ã'‡Ð °Ã ¹Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã'„Ð ¸Ã ½Ã °Ã ½Ã' Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã' , Ð ¡Ã ¡Ã ¤Ã ¤); CPI – Consumer Price Index (ИÐ ½Ã ´Ã µÃ ºÃ'  ПÐ ¾Ã'‚Ã'€Ð µÃ ±Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã'… Ð ¦Ã µÃ ½, ИПÐ ¦); EFTA – European Free Trade Association (ЕÐ ²Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µÃ ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã'  Ð Ã' Ã' Ã ¾Ã'†Ð ¸Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'  Ð ¡Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¢Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã »Ã ¸, ЕÐ Ã ¡Ã ¢); EMS – European Monetary System (ЕÐ ²Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µÃ ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã'  Ð’Ð °Ã »Ã'ŽÃ'‚Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ¡Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ð µÃ ¼Ã °, ЕВÐ ¡); IBRD – International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (ÐÅ"Ð µÃ ¶Ã ´Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã °Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ БÐ °Ã ½Ã º Ð  Ã µÃ ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ'†Ð ¸Ã ¸ Ð ¸ à   Ã °Ã ·Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã' , Ð’Ã' Ã µÃ ¼Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ БÐ °Ã ½Ã º); IMF – International Monetary Fund (ÐÅ"Ð µÃ ¶Ã ´Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã °Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð’Ð °Ã »Ã'ŽÃ'‚Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¤Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ´, ÐÅ"Ð’Ð ¤); OECD – Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (ОÃ'€Ð ³Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ·Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'  Ð ­Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ð ¡Ã ¾Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ° Ð ¸ Ð  Ã °Ã ·Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã' , ОÐ ­Ã ¡Ã  ); SDR – Special Drawing Rights (Ð ¼Ã µÃ ¶Ã ´Ã'Æ'Ð ½Ã °Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã °Ã'  Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã'‡Ð µÃ'‚Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð µÃ ´Ã ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'†Ð ° Ð ¡Ãâ€Ã  ); SNA – System of National Accounts (Ð ¡Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ð µÃ ¼Ã ° Ð ½Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¾Ã ½Ã °Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ã'… Ã' Ã'‡Ð µÃ'‚Ð ¾Ã ², Ð ¡Ã Ã ¡); VER – Voluntary Export Restraints (Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ¾Ã ³Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ã' Ã ºÃ' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã'€Ã'‚Ð °): â€Å"OECD board meeting takes place on Monday† – â€Å"Ð’ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ ´Ã µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¸Ã º Ã' Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã' Ã »Ã ¾Ã' Ã'Å' Ð ·Ã °Ã' Ã µÃ ´ Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ã'‡Ð »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¾Ã ² ОÃ'€Ð ³Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ·Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¸ Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾ Ã' Ã ¾Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ° Ð ¸ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã' Ã¢â‚¬  ( «Business Week »). Semantic transformations are inescapable when dealing with news headlines. The incentive for it is a huge amount of the so called headline vocabulary in the English language, often referred to as headlinese, which demands certain modifications when making a translation. Here is a list of words from the  «headline slang »: ban, bid, claim, crash, cut, dash, hit, move, pact, plea, probe, quit, quiz, rap, Red, rush, slash. These short words which can be easily inserted into a headline are characterized by a wide field of their use. Thus, bid is not only Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ,Ð ·Ã °Ã' Ã ²Ã ºÃ °,Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'‹Ã'‚Ð ºÃ °, but also Ã'ˆÐ °Ã ³,Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'†Ð ¸Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ²Ã °, Ã'Æ'Ã' Ã ¸Ã »Ã ¸Ã µÃ¢â‚¬â„¢; hit —not only Ð ½Ã °Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã °Ã'€,Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ½Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'Æ'Ã'‰Ð µÃ'€Ð ±,Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã °Ã ´Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ² Ã'†Ð µÃ »Ã'Å',but Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¸Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã'  Ð ½Ã ° Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾-Ð »Ã ¸Ã ±Ã ¾, Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ² Ð ¿Ã'Æ'Ã'… Ð ¸ Ð ² Ð ¿Ã'€Ð °Ã'… ; pact — not only Ð ¿Ã °Ã ºÃ'‚,Ã' Ã ¾Ã ³Ã »Ã °Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ,Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã'€, but Ã' Ã ´Ã µÃ »Ã ºÃ °, Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ã' Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã'€; probe — not only Ð ·Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ´Ã ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ, but Ð »Ã'ŽÐ ±Ã ¾Ã µ Ã' Ã »Ã µÃ ´Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¸Ã µ,Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã' Ã »Ã µÃ ´Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ,Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ'€Ð ºÃ ° as well; quit —not only Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ´Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ºÃ'€Ð °Ã'‰Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å', but also Ã'Æ'Ð µÃ ·Ã ¶Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ²Ã'‹Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ °, Ã' Ã ²Ã °Ã ºÃ'Æ'Ð ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã' ; quiz — not only Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã' ,but Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð °Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ¸Ã ½Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ð ²Ã'Å'Ã'ŽÐ ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ·Ã °Ã ´Ã °Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã' Ã'‹. It is important to point out that such words have already almost utterly replaced their synonyms in news headlines. Thus, ban taken the place of forbid and prohibit; rap — of criticize, reprimand, interrogate. Wide semantics of headline words demand context-conditioned transformations in the translation. In the majority of  cases concrete definition (hyponimic transformation) takes place in the Russian variant. The accurate sense of the headline is as usual revealed in the beginning of the article: Minebea Fous Trafalgar-Glen Bid(The Independent). Comp. The article’s outset : Minebea Corp, of Japan, the worlds largest maker of precision bearings, has foiled a hostile takeover attempt by a US-British financial group, the Kyodo News Service reported Friday. Here the outset takes away the polysemy of the headline word replacing it by the corresponding equivalent which is included into the concretizing and defining context : Trafalgar-Glen Bid — a hostile takeover attempt by a US-British financial group. In that way the translation may sound as follows: :ПÃ'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã » Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'‹Ã'‚Ð ºÃ ¸ Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¾-Ð °Ã ¼Ã µÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¹ Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¸ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ³Ã »Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ'Æ'Ã'Ž Ã'„Ð ¸Ã'€Ð ¼Ã'Æ' or ПÃ'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã » Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'‹Ã'‚Ð ºÃ ¸ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ'Æ'Ã'Ž Ã'„Ð ¸Ã'€Ð ¼Ã'Æ' Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¾-Ð °Ã ¼Ã µÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾Ã »Ã'Ž. Polysemic interprepretation of a news headline can also be conditioned by the use of certain syntactic constructions, nominal phrases in particular, which can be interpreted in different ways, for instance : Benn Blasts Tory Nuclear Cover-up. (The Times). It is impossible to translate the phrase Ð ¢Ã ¾rÃ'Æ' Nuclear Cover-up† without the context. Alternative versions are possible because of the bearing word of the phrase – cover up – derived from the phrasal verb to cover up Ã'‚Ã'‰Ð °Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾ Ã' Ã ºÃ'€Ã'‹Ð ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å',Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ºÃ'€Ã'‹Ð ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ³Ã ¾-Ð »Ã ¸Ã ±Ã ¾. But the main difficulty originates from the elliptic character of the whole phrase. The clue to the accurate interpretation of the phrase lies in the article’s outset : Labour MP Ð ¢Ã ¾nÃ'Æ' Benn last night accused the government of totally misleadingthe British people about nuclear power. Thus, cover-up means here not merely â€Å"Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ð °Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µÃ¢â‚¬ , but also â€Å"Ð ´Ã µÃ ·Ã ¸Ã ½Ã'„Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¼Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã' Ã¢â‚¬ , and the omitted element in the nominal phrase above is power (Tory nuclear cover-up—Tory nuclear power cover-up). The following variants of translation are possible: БÐ µÃ ½Ã ½ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã ²Ã ¸Ã ½Ã' Ã µÃ'‚ Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¸ Ð ² Ð ´Ã µÃ ·Ã ¸Ã ½Ã'„Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¼Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¸ Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã' Ã °Ã ¼ Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¼Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ã' Ã ½Ã µÃ'€Ð ³Ã ¸Ã ¸ or БÐ µÃ ½Ã ½ Ã'€Ð °Ã ·Ã ¾Ã ±Ã »Ã °Ã'‡Ð °Ã µÃ'‚ Ð ´Ã µÃ ·Ã ¸Ã ½Ã'„Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¼Ã °Ã'†Ð ¸Ã'Ž Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¸ Ð ¿Ã ¾ Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã' Ã °Ã ¼ Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¼ Ð ½Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ã' Ã ½Ã µÃ'€Ð ³Ã ¸Ã ¸. In the instance above the main difficulty connected with the interpretation of the nominal phrase is determined by its elliptic structure. In the following news headline elliptic structure is combined with the polysemy of semantic relations between the phrase components: â€Å"Power Station Action Starts Today (â€Å"The Times†). In this case power station can be realated to action as : 1) the agent, 2) the object, 3) the adverbial modifier of place. What is more, the phrase might be supposed to be characterized by semantic incompletness. The answers to these questions are to be found in the set-out: Todays Start of national industrial action in Britains power stations forms the background to the biennial Conferences of the electricians union in Scarborough. Hence power station is related to action as an adverbial modifier and the element omitted is the word combination industrial action Ð ·Ã °Ã ±Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ºÃ °. Thus the Russian variants may be as follows: Ðâ€"Ð °Ã ±Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ºÃ ¸ Ð ½Ã ° Ð °Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã'… Ã' Ã »Ã µÃ ºÃ'‚Ã'€Ð ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã ½Ã'†Ð ¸Ã' Ã'…Ð ¸Ã »Ã ¸ Ð Ã ½Ã ³Ã »Ã ¸Ã ¹Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã µ Ã' Ã »Ã µÃ ºÃ'‚Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ ¸ Ð ±Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ã'ŽÃ'‚. It is important to notice the essential difference between Russian and English news headlines. This difference mainly denotes the extent to which the article contents are reflected in the headline. The authors of the British and American news article keep to the following principle when creating headlines: : Headlines should tell the story†. Thus a headline is the compressed to the limit variant of the main text :Dusseldorfs State Gallery Proves a Mausoleum for Mummified Modernism; First Chicago Bank Says Profit Rose 58% for Initial Period. (The Sun). The Russian news headlines are based on a different principle: as a rule they place an emphasis on one element of the text contents – â€Å"Ðâ€"Ð °Ã'…Ð ²Ã °Ã'‚ Ð ·Ã °Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ² Ð ² БÐ µÃ' Ã »Ã °Ã ½Ã µÃ¢â‚¬  ( «Ãâ€™Ã µÃ'‡Ð µÃ'€Ð ½Ã ¸Ã ¹ ÐÅ"Ð ¸Ã ½Ã' Ã º) » . In such cases additional information is required because the method of literal translation does not guarantee an adequate English variant. Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Introduction Distinctive features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms The Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Peculiar Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1. Inversion. This transformation is demanded by a fixed word order in the English sentence. It is often conditioned on the degree of compatibility freedom in both languages : â€Å"Most favoured nation trading status† – â€Å"Ð ¡Ã'‚Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ã'  Ð ½Ã °Ã ¸Ã ±Ã ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ã'ˆÐ µÃ ³Ã ¾ Ð ±Ã »Ã °Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'  Ð ² Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã »Ã µÃ¢â‚¬ . ( «The Economist »). Polynomial word combinations which are frequently used for creating news headlines in the British and American periodicals often include attributes which represent a full sentence: â€Å"The no-room-at-the-inn incident† – â€Å"ИÐ ½Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚, Ã' Ã ²Ã' Ã ·Ã °Ã ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã'  Ð ¾Ã'‚Ã' Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¸Ã µÃ ¼ Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚ Ð ² Ð ³Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'†Ð µÃ¢â‚¬  ( «The Sun »). The principle of the translation of such news headlines includes the following steps : 1. To figure out the bearing word; 2. To select semantic groups; 3. To make a t ranslation starting with the bearing word. 2. The replacement of parts of speech or parts of a sentence. In some cases the replacement of certain parts of speech or members of sentence is required in order to achieve adequate translation: â€Å"Bill Clinton faces bypass operation † – â€Å"БÐ ¸Ã »Ã »Ã'Æ' КÐ »Ã ¸Ã ½Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ½Ã'Æ' Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¸Ã'‚ Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ ½Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ¸ Ã'ˆÃ'Æ'Ð ½Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µÃ¢â‚¬  (â€Å"International Herald Tribune†). It is the syntactical and semantic transformation that the sentence undergoes in the above case – the definite clause is replaced by the indefinite one due to the peculiarities of the Russian language. Thus, the simple predicate faces in the English headline is substituted for the complex verbal predicate Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ¸Ã'‚ Ð ¿Ã µÃ'€Ð µÃ ½Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ¸ in the Russian variant. 3. Word addition is required in order to clear up the meaning of a headline and deliver adequate translation: â€Å"For Bush it’s the man (not a detailed plan) that matters† – â€Å"ДÐ »Ã'  БÃ'Æ'Ã'ˆÐ ° Ð ²Ã °Ã ¶Ã µÃ ½ Ð ½Ã µ Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¾ Ð ´Ã µÃ'‚Ð °Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¿Ã »Ã °Ã ½, Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ºÃ ¾ Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º, Ã' Ã ¿Ã ¾Ã' Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ²Ã'‹Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ½Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð µÃ ³Ã ¾Ã¢â‚¬  ( «International Herald Tribune »). The laconism of the English language allows to omit the subordinate clause we add to the Russian variant without any significant changes in the meaning. As one can observe, apart from the method of word addition the method of inversion is also used in this case. Another example is:  «Feel the hate, fear and loathing in New York »  «ÃÅ¸Ã ¾Ã'‡Ã'Æ'Ð ²Ã'‡Ã'‚Ð ²Ã'Æ'Ð ¹Ã'‚Ð µ Ð ½Ã µÃ ½Ã °Ã ²Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å', Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'… Ð ¸ Ð ¾Ã'‚Ð ²Ã'€Ð °Ã'‰Ð µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ, Ã'†Ð °Ã'€Ã' Ã'ˆÐ ¸Ã µ Ð ² Ð Ã'Å'Ã'Ž-ЙÐ ¾Ã'€Ð ºÃ µÃ‚ ». ( «International Herald Tribune »); â€Å"U. S. reservist convicted over abuse in Iraqi prison† – â€Å"Ð Ã ¼Ã µÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã µÃ'€Ð ²Ã ¸Ã' Ã'‚ Ð ¾Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ¶Ã ´Ã µÃ ½ Ð ·Ã ° Ð ¶Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ºÃ ¾Ã µ Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã'‰Ð µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ã'  Ð ·Ã °Ã ºÃ »Ã'ŽÃ'‡Ð µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¼Ã ¸ Ð ² Ð ¸Ã'€Ð °Ã ºÃ' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ¹ Ã'‚Ã'ŽÃ'€Ã'Å'Ð ¼Ã µÃ¢â‚¬ . ( «International Herald Tribune »). 4.  Literal translation can take place in case of the similarity of the syntactical structure and word order in the English and the Russian sentence. In this case the English news h eadline may be rendered into Russian without any significant changes. Here it is possible to omit an article or any other functional word or to change the semantic character of a word. Literal translation should not be mixed with a word-for-word translation which always leads to a mistake. Exampler of the use of literal translation method:  «Lebanon extends term of its president »  «Ãâ€ºÃ ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã ½ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã »Ã µÃ ²Ã °Ã µÃ'‚ Ã' Ã'€Ð ¾Ã º Ð ¿Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã'  Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã'‚Ð °Ã‚ ». ( «International Herald Tribune  »). The Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Introduction Distinctive features of news headlines Formation of english neologisms. The Use of Translation Methods When Translating News Headlines Common Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation Peculiar Methods of Newspaper Headlines Translation 1) The structure of news headlines often includes free word combinations. Thus, their peculiarities are worth considering when translating a headline. In free word combinations words preserve their meanings. That is why when translating a free word combination it is necessary to know the translation of each of its components. In case there are no corresponding linguistic items in the Russian language to the English ones the translation method to be used is called replication. Replication means that all the components of a word combination are rendered without any changes. Thanks to the method of replication there is a huge amount of international notions which are widely used in news headlines: †¢ Shuttle diplomacy Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ½Ã ¾Ã'‡Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ´Ã ¸Ã ¿Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã' ; †¢ Vicious circle – Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'‡Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ºÃ'€Ã'Æ'Ð ³; †¢ Head of the government – Ð ³Ã »Ã °Ã ²Ã ° Ð ¿Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã °; †¢ Free economic zone – Ã' Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ¾Ã ´Ã ½Ã °Ã'  Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð µÃ' Ã ºÃ °Ã'  Ð ·Ã ¾Ã ½Ã °; †¢ Maldistribution of costs – Ð ½Ã µÃ ¿Ã'€Ð °Ã ²Ã ¸Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µ Ã'€Ð °Ã' Ã ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã µÃ »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ·Ã °Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã'‚; †¢ Jobless rate – Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å' Ð ±Ã µÃ ·Ã'€Ð °Ã ±Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'†Ã'‹:  «Jobless rate tips lower in France » –  «Ãâ€™Ã ¾ Ð ¤Ã'€Ð °Ã ½Ã'†Ð ¸Ã ¸ Ã' Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ·Ã ¸Ã »Ã' Ã'  Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ ½Ã'Å' Ð ±Ã µÃ ·Ã'€Ð °Ã ±Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'†Ã'‹.  » ( «International Herald Tribune »). It should be noted however that replication does not mean mere mechanical rendering of the meanings of a free word combination components. These components often stay in complicated relationships with each other. Even the most simple attributive groups which coincide in their structure with the Russian combinations â€Å"Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã »Ã °Ã ³Ã °Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µ+Ã' Ã'Æ'Ã'‰Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã µÃ¢â‚¬  (A+N: Adjective+Noun) can be difficult to translate because: 1. An English word (adjective in the function of an attribute) can be translated in different ways depending on the meaning of a noun that follows: †¢ Public opinion – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'‰Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ¼Ã ½Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ; †¢ Public debt – Ð ³Ã ¾Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã °Ã'€Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ³; †¢ Public scandal – Ð ¿Ã'Æ'Ð ±Ã »Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã ´Ã °Ã »:  «Public debt of Lybia increases by 2,8 % over 8 months » –  «Ãâ€œÃ ¾Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã °Ã'€Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ³ ЛÐ ¸Ã ²Ã ¸Ã ¸ Ã'Æ'Ð ²Ã µÃ »Ã ¸Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã »Ã' Ã'  Ð ·Ã ° 8 Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã' Ã'†Ð µÃ ² Ð ½Ã ° 2,8 %  » ( «The Economist »). 2. The Russian variant bears a preposition: †¢ Europian securiy – Ð ±Ã µÃ ·Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã °Ã' Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ² ЕÐ ²Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µ; †¢ Stateless citizen – Ã'‡Ð µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ²Ã µÃ º Ð ±Ã µÃ · Ð ³Ã'€Ð °Ã ¶Ã ´Ã °Ã ½Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã °; †¢ Terrorist trial – Ã' Ã'Æ'Ð ´ Ð ½Ã °Ã ´ Ã'‚Ð µÃ'€Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã ¼Ã ¸; †¢ Commercial revolution – Ã'€Ð µÃ ²Ã ¾Ã »Ã'ŽÃ'†Ð ¸Ã'  Ð ² Ã' Ã'„Ð µÃ'€Ð µ Ã'€Ã'‹Ð ½Ã ºÃ °: „Who is to be responsible for European Security? â€Å" – „КÃ'‚Ð ¾ Ð ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¶Ã µÃ ½ Ð ½Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð ¸ Ð ¾Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µÃ'‚Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã µÃ ½Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ·Ã ° Ð ±Ã µÃ ·Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã °Ã' Ã ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ² ЕÐ ²Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã µ? â€Å"(„The Timesâ€Å"). 3. Components of an attributive group are shifted: †¢ Working expectancy – Ð ¾Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã ´Ã °Ã µÃ ¼Ã °Ã'  Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'‚Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ´Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¸; †¢ Administrative efficiency – Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã µÃ »Ã ¾Ã µ Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã ¾:  «Crisis overcome due to administrative efficiency »  «Ãâ€˜Ã »Ã °Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ´Ã °Ã'€Ã'  Ã'Æ'Ð ¼Ã µÃ »Ã ¾Ã ¼Ã'Æ' Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã' Ã'‚Ð ²Ã'Æ' Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ·Ã ¸Ã'  Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã‚ ». ( «International Herald Tribune  »). 2)News headlines can be well characterized by the frequent use of phraseological units. Phraseological units are more or less stable word combinations the meaning of which is determined by the whole unit but not by the meanings of each of its components: †¢ It’s high time – Ð ´Ã °Ã ²Ã ½Ã ¾ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã'€Ð °; †¢ Take your time – Ð ½Ã µ Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¾Ã ¿Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ' Ã'Å'; †¢ Help yourself – Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã ¾Ã'‰Ð °Ã ¹Ã'‚Ð µÃ' Ã'Å':  «A new delicious production of â€Å"Kaligula†: theatrical epicures, please help yourself »  «Ã Ã ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'  Ð ¸Ã ·Ã'‹Ã' Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ºÃ °  «ÃÅ¡Ã °Ã »Ã ¸Ã ³Ã'Æ'Ð »Ã'‹Â » Ã'Æ'Ð ³Ã ¾Ã'‰Ð µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ´Ã »Ã'  Ã'‚Ð µÃ °Ã'‚Ã'€Ð °Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ã'… Ð ³Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ¾Ã ²Ã‚ » ( «The Daily Telegraph »). British and American news headlines are rich in both figurative and non-figurative phraseological units. Non-figurative phraseological units are also called fraseological combinations. The components in them preserve their meanings but combine with certain words only, that is why it is impossible to change them ad arbitruim: †¢ To take measures – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¼Ã µÃ'€Ã'‹; †¢ To make a decision – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'€Ð µÃ'ˆÐ µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ; †¢ To achieve results – Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ¸Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã'  Ã'€Ð µÃ ·Ã'Æ'Ð »Ã'Å'Ã'‚Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²; †¢ To pay attention – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã'‰Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ (Ã' Ã ²Ã ¾Ã µ); †¢ To draw attention – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã'‰Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ (Ã'‡Ã'Å'Ð µ-Ã'‚Ð ¾):  «Troops start storming school in Beslan – who makes decision?  » –  «ÃÅ¡Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã' Ã » Ã'€Ð µÃ'ˆÐ µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã µ Ð ½Ã °Ã'‡Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ã'ˆÃ'‚Ã'Æ'Ã'€Ð ¼ Ã'ˆÐ ºÃ ¾Ã »Ã'‹ Ð ² БÐ µÃ' Ã »Ã °Ã ½Ã µ?  » ( «International Herald Tribune »). The translation of non-figurative phraseological expressions into Russian can be carried out in two different ways: The 1st method – the expression is rendered into one Russian word: †¢ To take a risk – Ã'€Ð ¸Ã' Ã ºÃ ¾Ã ²Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å'; †¢ To have a rest – Ð ¾Ã'‚Ð ´Ã'‹Ã'…Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å'; †¢ To take offence – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã ¸Ã ´Ã µÃ'‚Ã'Å'Ã' Ã' ; †¢ To take a nap – Ð ²Ã ·Ã ´Ã'€Ð µÃ ¼Ã ½Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ã'Å':  «Does NTT general director take big risks?  »  «Ã ¡Ã µÃ'€Ã'Å'Ð µÃ ·Ã ½Ã ¾ Ð »Ã ¸ Ã'€Ð ¸Ã' Ã ºÃ'Æ'Ð µÃ'‚ Ð ³Ã µÃ ½Ã µÃ'€Ð °Ã »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ´Ã ¸Ã'€Ð µÃ ºÃ'‚Ð ¾Ã'€ Ð ­Ã ½-Ã'‚Ð ¸-Ã'‚Ð ¸?  » ( «The Times†). The 2d method – a phraseological unit is rendered into equivalent combinations (absolute and relative): a) absolute equivalents: o shadow cabinet – Ã'‚Ð µÃ ½Ã µÃ ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ð ºÃ °Ã ±Ã ¸Ã ½Ã µÃ'‚; o to hit the target – Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¿Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ² Ã'†Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'; o golden share – Ð ·Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã'‚Ð °Ã'  Ð °Ã ºÃ'†Ð ¸Ã' ; o to put an end to – Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã »Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ½Ã µÃ'†, Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ¾Ã ´Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ'‚Ã'Å'; o the root of the trouble – Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å' Ð ·Ã »Ã °; o to read between lines – Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã'‚Ð °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¼Ã µÃ ¶Ã ´Ã'Æ' Ã' Ã'‚Ã'€Ð ¾Ã º: â€Å"Terrorism – where root of trouble to be found† – â€Å"Ð ¢Ã µÃ'€Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ·Ã ¼ – Ð ² Ã'‡Ð µÃ ¼ Ð ºÃ'€Ð ¾Ã µÃ'‚Ã' Ã'  Ð ºÃ ¾Ã'€Ð µÃ ½Ã'Å' Ð ·Ã »Ã °? † ( «International Herald Tribune »). b) relative equivalents: o to take into account – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð ¸Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ²Ã ¾ Ð ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ; o to make a point – Ð ¾Ã ±Ã'€Ð °Ã'‚Ð ¸Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¾Ã' Ã ¾Ã ±Ã ¾Ã µ Ð ²Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã µ; o to jump at conclusions – Ð ´Ã µÃ »Ã °Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã' Ã ¿Ã µÃ'ˆÐ ½Ã'‹Ð µ Ð ²Ã'‹Ð ²Ã ¾Ã ´Ã'‹; o moment of silence – Ð ¼Ã ¸Ã ½Ã'Æ'Ã'‚Ð ° Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã »Ã'‡Ð °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã' ; o ups-and-downs – Ð ²Ã ·Ã »Ã µÃ'‚Ã'‹ Ð ¸ Ð ¿Ã °Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã' ; o at the worlds end – Ð ½Ã ° Ð ºÃ'€Ð °Ã'Ž Ã' Ã ²Ã µÃ'‚Ð °; o think tank – Ð ¼Ã ¾Ã ·Ã ³Ã ¾Ã ²Ã ¾Ã ¹ Ã'†Ð µÃ ½Ã'‚Ã'€; o token strike – Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã'Æ'Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ ´Ã ¸Ã'‚Ð µÃ »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã °Ã'  Ð ·Ã °Ã ±Ã °Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã ²Ã ºÃ °:  «Ups-and-downs of Rolex: brief outlook on history »  «Ãâ€™Ã ·Ã »Ã µÃ'‚Ã'‹ Ð ¸ Ð ¿Ã °Ã ´Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã'  Ð  Ã ¾Ã »Ã µÃ ºÃ' Ã °: Ð ²Ã ·Ã ³Ã »Ã' Ã ´ Ð ½Ã ° Ð ¸Ã' Ã'‚Ð ¾Ã'€Ð ¸Ã'Ž Ð ºÃ ¾Ã ¼Ã ¿Ã °Ã ½Ã ¸Ã ¸Ã‚ » ( «Business Week »). All in all, to whatever extent the components of a phraseological unit might be semantically connected, the main rule when making a translation is to observe the norms of the Russian language and avoid literal translation and violation of the Russian set expressions. Figurative phraseological units are also known as idioms. Idioms can be often found in news headlines as well. An idiom is a set  expression (conversational formula) the meaning of which does not arise from the sum of its components meanings: o through thick and thin –Ð ²Ã ¾ Ã'‡Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ð ±Ã'‹ Ã'‚Ð ¾ Ð ½Ã ¸ Ã' Ã'‚Ð °Ã »Ã ¾; o tooth and nail – Ð ½Ã µ Ð ¶Ã °Ã »Ã µÃ'  Ã' Ã ¸Ã », Ð ·Ã °Ã' Ã'Æ'Ã'‡Ð ¸Ã ² Ã'€Ã'Æ'Ð ºÃ °Ã ²Ã °; o its raining cats and dogs – Ð ´Ã ¾Ã ¶Ã ´Ã'Å' Ð »Ã'Å'Ð µÃ'‚ Ð ºÃ °Ã º Ð ¸Ã · Ð ²Ã µÃ ´Ã'€Ð °; o to be caught red-handed Ð ±Ã'‹Ã'‚Ã'Å' Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½Ã ½Ã'‹Ð ¼ Ð ½Ã ° Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð µ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ¿Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã' :  «US guardsman caught red-handed »  «Ã Ã ¼Ã µÃ'€Ð ¸Ã ºÃ °Ã ½Ã' Ã ºÃ ¸Ã ¹ Ð ºÃ °Ã'€Ð °Ã'Æ'Ð »Ã'Å'Ð ½Ã'‹Ð ¹ Ð ¿Ã ¾Ã ¹Ã ¼Ã °Ã ½ Ð ½Ã ° Ð ¼Ã µÃ' Ã'‚Ð µ Ð ¿Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'‚Ã'Æ'Ð ¿Ã »Ã µÃ ½Ã ¸Ã' Ã‚ » ( «International Herald Tribune »). When translating idioms one ought to use their Russi an equivalents.

The Causes and Development of the Cold War 1945 - 1990 Essay Example for Free

The Causes and Development of the Cold War 1945 1990 Essay The Cold War was not like any war that had occurred before hand. It started from 1945 and went on for nearly half a century. The reason why this war was so special was the fact that it was not fought with weapons or armies but it was a war of words. It was more like a test of nerve, who could scare the other the most? There was a huge threat of a nuclear war between Russia and the west. It was not very active but the threat was still there. The cold War gets its name because of the cruel relations between the two sides; it was extremely icy and cruel. The war all started out because of each nation losing their trust in each other after the Second World War. Russia had reasons to mistrust the west because Russia had been invaded by Germany inn 1914 and the west joined them to crush communism. Also Britain and France refused to join alliance with Russia in 1941, this then resulted in Germany invaded Russia. Suspicions were very high that America was keeping secrets from them and they were right. America had finally invented the A-bomb, now they had this Russia had no importance to the United States whatsoever. But at the same time The U S were had their own suspicions of Russia as well. After the Second World War all the armies had removed their troops from Eastern Europe, but Russia still kept theirs there. The U S knew Stalin was up to something, and he was! Stalin took over all of the countries surrounding the Soviet Union. America was not happy about this at all. But Stalin promised that he would hold free elections in these countries and to not force communism upon them. He lied! He knew that the only way the west could stop him from creating the countries in to communists was to go to war and he knew they would not want to do that because of the consequences they had suffered in the War. America was not ready for another war she was financially crippled. With all the surrounding countries under his rule Stalin knew that if countries were to invade Russia they would have to go through these first. This created a barrier; it bought him time before anyone could reach Moscow to attack. Churchill described this blockade as the Iron Curtain. It separated Russia from the rest of the world. The U S decided they needed to take action, so they devised up a plan of Containment. This was a policy that meant that they would help any country to defend themselves if they were threatened by communism. America and the West were trying to make sure that communism did not spread. Then came the Truman Doctrine. Turkey and Greece were having a lot of problems with the Russians. They had to defend themselves against Russia and its communist regimes. Britain was aiding them with weapons and supplies but an economically crippling winter in 1946 meant that they could not afford to help no longer. So the U S came in to help. The Truman Doctrine that was made was a policy of Americas Commitment against communism. Any country facing a war against Communism would be helped by the U S. Then came another plan by the U S, this one was called the Marshall Plan. A man called George Marshall who was the Secretary of State for the U S at the time of 1947 devised it. George Marshall pledged that the U S government would give Billions of dollars to the poorer countries in Europe. On the outside this was looked upon as a very unselfish and kind gesture. But if looked upon closely you could see that it was just part of a scam. It was in Americas greatest interests to give Europe the money. The reason why? To stop communism! It did this because all the poorer countries were heavily stricken with poverty and hunger, the people were extremely dejected and needed something to look up to, more like a light at the end of the tunnel. To them with the help of Stalins propaganda schemes Communism looked like a way out of poverty. With the U S giving them money it made them happier, they had no more problems, thus giving America the edge on containing Communism away from vulnerable Countries. In 1962 a major development had been revealed. Russia was sending over nuclear missiles to Cuba. This meant that America was now under threat from nuclear attacks. But America quickly intervened they told Russia that if they were to send any more shipments over that they would take immediate action and destroy the vessels. Russia was not expecting that reply they assumed no action would take place. America set up blockades and arranged air strikes over the ocean; Khrushchev decided to deploy their ships back to Russia before another conflict took place. After seeing and hearing of these events taking place it must have been extremely frightening for the people in the world at this time. There was a huge threat of a nuclear war, which could have drastically destroyed the world completely. Each countries nerve was tested to the limit, but luckily no one decided to retaliate in a major way. With the U S inventing new plans and technology the west made it extremely hard for Russia and Stalin to take over the world and make it communist. The Cold war changed the world forever, no longer would wars be fought in trenches and battlefields. They would be fought with words, and with just one switch of a button the whole world could be destroyed.

Giotto Di Bondones Style and Technique

Giotto Di Bondones Style and Technique Briefly outline the characteristics of Giotto’s style and analyse the impact of his works on fourteenth-century Italian Art Giotto was a Florentine painter and architect who was recognized as an artistic genius and protagonist during the Italian Renaissance. For artist Giorgio Vasari the great biographer of Italian Renaissance artists the new art had its birth with Giotto[1]. Giotto lived and worked at a time when society was exploring and testing the boundaries of medieval traditions and institutions. This is reflected in his religious subjects where the earthly, full-blooded energy for which he was so famous was to spark the beginnings of artistic naturalism and humanism. For Vasari, Giotto’s work represents a period when painting woke from its long subjection to the Greeks. As Hale says: the stiffness of the Byzantine style gave way to something like grace, figures began to cast shadows and to be foreshortened, their drapery revealed movement and their faces reflected feeling, fear, hope, anger or love. [2] These characteristics are reflected in one of Giotto’s earliest works, Madonna and Child, where the child, although now lost, is affectionately clasping the Madonna’s hand, with its other hand outstretched to her face. The Madonna’s eyes meet those of the viewer with an elongated stare. Both of these qualities reflect Giotto’s desire to express human sentiment and his interest in the communication of feeling. Giotto also experiments with form so that the straight alignment of the Madonna’s features are juxtaposed against the shape of her gown which flows down and away from her face. Giotto is famous for his frescoes at Assisi where he perpetuated a new use of space and colour. For example, The Doctors of the Church sets portraits within areas framed by extravagantly decorative geometric, figurative, and floral motifs.[3] In The Scenes from the Life of St. Francis the strong portrayal of animals, plants, flowers, pottery and rocks are integrated into the human scenarios so that the two become integral to one another. In St. Francis Giving his Mantle to a Poor Knight the red of the knight’s robe is seen on the back of the mule and in the buildings and landscapes of the background. This is suggestive of Giotto’s desire to unify different elements of his paintings a theme which was to continue into the trends of the fourteenth century. Indeed in his frescoes at Padua (1302-5) where he painted the lives of Christ and the Virgin in the private chapel of Enrico Scrovegni, Padua’s richest citizen, his fusion between figures and space and his concep tion of them as a ‘single coherent unit’[4] is taken to a new extreme. A section of The Last Judgement shows Enrico Scrovegni offering a model of the chapel to Mary, who stands beside a saint and an angel. The gift symbolises Enrico seeking penitence for his father’s sin of usury.[5] This arrangement reflects man’s communication with God, and in turn the unification of the material and the spiritual. In The Last Judgement, where Christ sits surrounded by an aura, Giotto places figures at the centre of their world representing mankind’s place at the centre of history and his unique individuality, which was to become a fundamental of the humanist vision during the fourteenth century. Fourteenth century Italian art was intrinsically linked to the political developments occurring during the time. Giotto was certainly one of the first to assert a style based on observations of nature rather than the upholding of medieval traditions, and during a time when city states were becoming more independent, and democracies were governed by guilds associations of merchants, bankers, artisans, and other professionals[6] this form of artistic freedom was welcomed by those who had democratic or political influence. Giotto’s decorating of the family chapels of the wealthiest citizens of Florence and Padua suggests that art was seen as an ultimate aesthetic representation of virtue and power. In S. Croce Giotto painted the life of St. Francis in the Bardi chapel and those of the two St. Johns in the Peruzzi chapel. The Bardi and Peruzzi were the two greatest banker families of Florence and court bankers of the kings of England and Naples, to the latter of whom Giotto was court painter between 1328-32.[7] These were important developments for fourteenth century art as at Peruzzi Giotto incorporates portrait heads, presumably of the Peruzzi family. As Antal phrases it: ‘it was the wealthiest citizens of Florence who were the first to be represented, outside a fresco or religious painting, in almost wholly independent portraits, though still for the time being inside the same frame.’[8] Later artwork was to completely separate portraits from religious paintings so that the individual could be represented as independent of, but still connected to, the spiritual realm. Fourteenth-century frescoes reveal that individualism was greatly esteemed in the Italian city-republics, and a developing trend for freedom of expression can be seen in Giotto’s pupils and successors such as Taddeo Gaddi. The lives of Christ, the Virgin and the Saints were the subjects of many important paintings and sculptures commissioned at the time. However, although these subjects continue those used by Giotto, his style began to be adapted by his pupils. His idea of a painting as a single unified whole was taken further by incorporating a greater diversity of individual elements within that whole. As Antal explains it: The painters abandoned Giottos centripetal emphasis in order to obtain a fuller narrative; the number of figures is greater, they are individualised and more vehement in their movements, more passionate or more charming; sometimes landscape predominates, and the architecture is richer and more Gothic.[9] However, Giotto’s work was still to prove pivotal to the changes occurring during the fourteenth century. By mid-century, Italy saw a surge of artistic output which integrated new ideals into earlier modes of representation. Over time, figures became more naturalistic, and the linear and angular quality of clothing on figures became softened. As mentioned above, Giotto’s volumetric figures of Madonna and of Christ express these qualities nearly a century earlier. These works were to influence major fourteenth century artists such as Michelangelo and Raphael. As seen in Madonna and Child Giotto experimented with the form of the figure and created a shadow effect, adding three dimensionality to the painting. This solution to creating the illusion of solidity to his figures was developed by the later artists who are famous for their exquisite eye for detail. With Giotto, the two dimensional world of thirteenth-century Italian painting was transformed into an analogue for the real world.[10] It was the simplicity of his style and his mastery of illusion which captivated the audiences of his time. As Bernard Berenson puts it: With the simplest means, with almost rudimentary light and shade, and functional line, he contrives to render, out of all the possible outlines, out of all the possible variations of light and shade that a given figure may have, only those that we must isolate for special attention when we are actually realizing it.[11] Giotto was to lay the foundations of a radical artistic movement in fourteenth century Italy. Later artists developed the simplicity of his use of line, form and three-dimensionality. His bold use of colour and composition was to precipitate a wealth of changes in the styles and tastes of fourteenth century Italian art, and his contributions to the history of aesthetics are perhaps some of the most comprehensive in history. Bibliography Antal, F., 1947, Florentine Painting and Its Social Background; the Bourgeois Republic before Cosimo De Medicis Advent to Power: XIV and Early XV Centuries. London: K. Paul Bennett, A., 1999, Giotto. London: Dorling Kindersley Berenson, B., 1953, The Italian Painters of the Renaissance. Phaidon: New York Hale, J.R., 1954, England and the Italian Renaissance: The Growth of Interest in Its History and Art. London: Faber and Faber Osmond, S.F., 1998, The Renaissance Mind Mirrored in Art. World and I, Vol. 13 http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/iptg/hd_iptg.htm. Further Reading Henderson, J., and Verdon, T., (eds), 1990, Christianity and the Renaissance: Image and Religious Imagination in the Quattrocento. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press Martindale, A., 1969, The Complete Paintings of Giotto. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson. Murray, L., and Murray, P., 1963, The Art of the Renaissance. New York: Praeger Footnotes [1] Osmond, S.F., 1998, The Renaissance Mind Mirrored in Art. World and I, Vol. 13. p.1. [2] Hale, J.R., 1954, England and the Italian Renaissance: The Growth of Interest in Its History and Art. London: Faber and Faber, p.60. [3] Bennett, A., 1999, Giotto. London: Dorling Kindersley, p.25. [4] Ibid, p.66. [5] Ibid, p.71. [6] Osmond, S.F., 1998, The Renaissance Mind Mirrored in Art. World and I, Vol. 13. [7] Antal, F., 1947, Florentine Painting and Its Social Background; the Bourgeois Republic before Cosimo De Medicis Advent to Power: XIV and Early XV Centuries. London: K. Paul, p.159. [8] Ibid, p.159. [9] Ibid, p.174. [10] http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/iptg/hd_iptg.htm. [11] Berenson, B., 1953, The Italian Painters of the Renaissance. Phaidon: New York, p.44.

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Chis passed away 3 days later at the age of 41. Chris died naturally, and that was the way he wanted it. Today, people have options in death. Physician assisted suicide is defined by Merriam Webster, as â€Å"suicide that is carried out with the help of a doctor† (Merriam Webster). It is usually carried out by a lethal dose of medication which makes you fall asleep and then stops your heart. The process usually takes about 30 minutes. It could look something like this, and you would drink it from a straw. Show the glass with the mixture and a straw. It takes about this much to kill a grown man. Physician Assisted Suicide is currently an option offered in four states and has been considered in forty six others. Today, I am here to talk about Physician Assisted Suicide, and how it should not be legal in any state. Most of us, especially at our age, don’t really don’t think too much about terminal illness and death, but a terminal illness could happen to anyone of us, or someone we love or care about. Physician assisted suicide is not legal in Minnesota, but it is legal in Oregon, Vermont, Washington and Montana. This is a hotly debated issued because there are such strong opinions on both sides. Those in favor of Physician Assisted believe that each person when faced with their own inevitable death, deserve the right to end their lives on their own terms without pain and suffering. Those that oppose any legislation to believe it violates the physicians fundamental Hippocratic oath which is to â€Å"Do No Harm,† and that it is a dangerous and slippery slope. Jane St. Clair who founded an organization called The Compassionate Choice, lost her mother, father, and sister to cancer. She wrote that Physician Assisted Suicide ... ...a life, the caregiver is able to offer medications, treatments, as well as a willingness to listen and provide support and guidance through a very difficult time. This can make the experience much easier for the patients and their families. Even though Physician Assisted Suicide is currently not being considered in Minnesota, there are ways we can support the efforts to not have this be legal in any state. Please consider becoming a part of the pursuit of ending Physician Assisted Suicide by joining the many established national disability organization that oppose assisted suicide. They include: The National Council on Independent Living, The National Spinal Crd Injury Association, The Disability Right Education and Defense Fund, and the National Council on Disability. By becoming involved you can help each state be free of Assisted Suicide. Thank you!

castration Essay -- essays research papers

Should Chemical Castration be performed on Sex Offenders? Okay suppose your five-year-old daughter was brutally attacked and raped by a known sex offender, would you rather the offender to be sentenced to a few years in prison, only to get out and destroy another innocent victim’s life or have them chemically castrated? Chemical castration is the process of injecting male sex offenders’ female hormones to eliminate their sex drive. Honestly until someone is in the position; how can they say that it should or should not be performed on these offenders. Growing up there was a family up the road that we all considered a little strange and even scared to go around. When we became adults the oldest son and his wife was arrested and charged with over ten counts of molestation of a juvenile and aggravated rape of a juvenile. The children next door to them and their own children were the victims. It is suspected that the father of this family and the other son was also involved but this was never proven. The couple only served a few years in prison the wife was released first and the husband a couple years later. Although, there has not been any other charges filed against the couple to knowledge there has been many times that their house has been passed and seen several children on their porch. It always sends chills down my spine; even though I do not know anything for sure, I suspect the abuse continues. My personal opinion is that castration is perfect for offenders of this nature. According to www.csum.edu, sex offenders are among the highest reoccurring offenders in the United States. These types of criminals pose a threat to society and mostly to the people that live in the same neighborhood that they move into after being released from prison. When these offenders are given female hormones the rates of reoccurrence decreases to five percent. This is because of the reduction of testosterone levels, therefore decreases the sexual desires of these offenders. According to Andrew Humpherson, offenders who molest children are nearly impossible to rehabilitate. He also says that if these offenders where chemically castrated it would reduce the urge to molest children. The offenders who have been released on parole, as a discount on his maximum jail sentence, should be requir... ...es, the offender has to pay for his own injections. I am sure that there are those that can argue all of my points and can even come up with different statistics to support their own points. France has started testing a different type of chemical castration, in which, they refer as a chemical straight jacket. This is performed by administering injections of the prostate cancer drug leuproreline performs this process and the breast cancer tablet cyproterone dampens the sex drive and inhibits erections. According to Madelaine Perret, vice-president of the Paris section of the prisoner help organization, she has spoken with one prisoner and he told her â€Å"'Madame, you can't imagine the strength of the impulse that some of us men feel to get close to little boys and commit acts that are completely forbidden†. "He said he was glad to have been arrested and happy to be in prison. Because there were no young boys, there was no temptation and so it was in prison that he felt free.† It was also stated in this article that he was down for a long sentence but was afraid of being released and offending again, he also stated that he wanted treatment. (BBC Ne ws)